Computer systems typically employ one or more interconnects to facilitate communication between system components, such as between processors and memory. Interconnects and/or expansion interfaces may also be used to support built-in and add on devices, such as IO (input/output) devices and expansion cards and the like. For many years after the personal computer was introduced, the primary form of interconnect was a parallel bus. Parallel bus structures were used for both internal data transfers and expansion buses, such as ISA (Industry Standard Architecture), MCA (Micro Channel Architecture), EISA (Extended Industry Standard Architecture) and VESA Local Bus. In the early 1990's Intel Corporation introduced the PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) computer bus. PCI improved on earlier bus technologies by not only increasing the bus speed, but also introducing automatic configuration and transaction-based data transfers using shared address and data lines.
As time progressed, computer processor clock rates where increasing at a faster pace than parallel bus clock rates. As a result, computer workloads were often limited by interconnect bottlenecks rather than processor speed. Although parallel buses support the transfer of a large amount of data (e.g., 32 or even 64 bits under PCI-X) with each cycle, their clock rates are limited by timing skew considerations, leading to a practical limit to maximum bus speed. To overcome this problem, high-speed serial interconnects were developed. Examples of early serial interconnects include Serial ATA, USB (Universal Serial Bus), FireWire, and RapidIO.
Another standard serial interconnect that is widely used is PCI Express, also called PCIe, which was introduced in 2004 under the PCIe 1.0 standard. PCIe was designed to replace older PCI and PCI-X standards, while providing legacy support. PCIe employs point-to-point serial links rather than a shared parallel bus architecture. Each link supports a point-to-point communication channel between two PCIe ports using one or more lanes, with each lane comprising a bi-directional serial link. The lanes are physically routed using a crossbar switch architecture, which supports communication between multiple devices at the same time. As a result of its inherent advantages, PCIe has replaced PCI as the most prevalent interconnect in today's personal computers. PCIe is an industry standard managed by the PCI-SIG (Special Interest Group). As such, PCIe pads are available from many ASIC and silicon vendors.
Recently, Intel introduced the QuickPath Interconnect® (QPI). QPI was initially implemented as a point-to-point processor interconnect replacing the Front Side Bus on platforms using high-performance processors, such as Intel®, Xeon®, and Itanium® processors. QPI is scalable, and is particularly advantageous in systems having multiple processors or processor cores employing shared memory resources. QPI transactions employ packet-based transfers using a multi-layer protocol architecture. Among its features is support for coherent transactions (e.g., memory coherency).
Other recent advancements include multi-core processors and System on a Chip (SoC) architectures. Rather than interfacing discrete components on a printed circuit board or through use of other package configurations, on an SoC multiple components are integrated onto a single integrated chip. SoCs offer a number of advantages, including denser packaging, higher speed communication between functional components, and lower temperature operation. However, while processing capabilities can be scaled by using additional processor cores, interconnect bandwidth cannot be similarly scaled, and the prospects for increasing bandwidth through use of higher clock rates is rather limited. As a result, interconnect bottlenecks associated with IO accesses such as memory transactions is a key road block to scaling SoC performance.